SUCCINIC ACID AND ITS DERIVATIVES: FERMENTATIVE PRODUCTION USING SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL AGRO-FOOD BY-PRODUCTS AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
F. Chimirri, F. Bosco, R. Ceccarelli, A. Venturello and F. Geobaldo
The fermentative production of succinic acid (SA) is becoming an attractive alternative to traditional chemical synthesis. SA can be used directly or transformed into some derived chemicals, with applications in the food industry. For example, SA and sodium succinate are flavour enhancers; adipic acid and its salts can be used as acidity regulators, acidifiers, flavour enhancers, gelling aids and slow raising agents. Moreover, SA-derived biodegradable plastics, such as aliphatic polyesters and aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters have a wide range of applications in food packaging. The replacement of a chemical process with a biological one offers many environmental advantages. To make it cost-competitive, however, process optimization is required and the substrate cost has to be reduced. To reach this goal, renewable low-cost resources, such as agro-food by-products (molasses, cheese whey, wood hydrolysates, wheat flour) can be used in place of pure, expensive ones. In the present paper, the use of agro-food industry by-products as low cost carbon sources in the fermentative production of SA are reviewed. The use of SA and its derivatives in the food industry are also highlighted. Attention is focused on the innovative “cyclic” aspect of SA fermentative production and its applications from agro-food by-products to food products.

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PAPERS

MICROSTRUCTURE OF NATURAL, EXTRUDED AND CO-EXTRUDED COLLAGEN CASINGS BEFORE AND AFTER HEATING
S. Barbut
The microstructures of natural and manufactured collagen casings were evaluated by light and scanning electron microscopy. Sheep and hog casings showed a typical natural casings structure consisting mainly of the submucosa layer. Polarized light microscopy clearly showed the connective tissue fiber alignment. Manufactured, extruded casings showed a gelled matrix in which connective tissue fibers were embedded. A special chemically hardened casing showed a much denser alignment of the connective tissue fibers, and higher protein content per unit area. In co-extruded casings, a structure fairly similar to the manufactured, extruded casings was observed. Scanning electron microscopy revealed three dimensional microstructures showing the connective tissue fibers’ orientation and distribution.

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EVALUATION OF SOME SENSORY PROPERTIES AND COOKING LOSS OF DIFFERENT BURGER FORMULATIONS
K.M. Al-Mrazeeq, B.M. Al-Abdullah and K.M. Al-Ismail
Five burger formulations were prepared to study the effect of replacing beef and chicken fat with olive oil, of mixing chicken meat with beef on some of the sensory properties and cooking loss during storage at -18°C for 1 and 3 months and after grilling at 75°C for 20 min. The five burger formulations were: beef, chicken, mixed beef and chicken (50:50), beef with olive oil (90:10), and chicken with olive oil (90:10). Cooking loss, after formulation was between 43.28-51.30%; chicken with olive oil showed the lowest cooking loss, while the mixed treatment showed the highest cooking loss. At the end of storage (3 months), cooking loss significantly (P≤0.05) increased for all treatments. Mixing of chicken with beef significantly (P≤0.05) enhanced the sensory characteristics of the beef burger, whereas addition of olive oil had a variable influence on the sensory characteristics of the freshly prepared and stored burgers.

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EVOLUTION OF MECHANICAL VARIABLES OF WINEGRAPES FOR ICEWINE PRODUCTION DURING ON-VINE DRYING
L. Rolle, F. Torchio, E. Cagnasso and V. Gerbi
The evolution of some mechanical properties of the berry skin and pedicel during on-vine drying of wine-grapes was studied, in order to assess the suitability of two alpine cultivars, Becuét and Fumin, for the production of icewines. This overripening process on the vine, which lasts until complete freezing of the grapes, results in marked changes in the mechanical characteristics of the grapes. During grape dehydration, the skin thickness increased in both cultivars (Becuét +73 µm, Fumin +85 µm). The skin hardness also increased, particularly in the Becuét berries, in which the break skin force and break skin energy values increased of 0.148 N and 0.823 mJ, respectively. In contrast, the peduncle detachment force decreased during the drying process; in Becuét grapes, this occurred after only 15 days. While the two cultivars have different mechanical properties, both proved to be suitable for the production of icewines (“Vini del ghiaccio”); the changes that occur during on-vine drying do not preclude the resistance of the berries to shattering and of the berry skin to splitting.

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LEAD AND CADMIUM IN SOME MILK AND MILK-BASED MOZZARELLA CHEESES FROM APULIA, ITALY
M. Faccia, G. Gambacorta, M. Quinto and A. Di Luccia
The content of lead and cadmium in milk produced near a rural area subjected to illegal dumping and the transfer of the two metals from milk to Mozzarella cheese were investigated. The concentrations found in milk (from 2.00 to 19.17 for Pb and from 0.04 to 1.43 mg L-1 for Cd) did not exceed the maximum limits established by European Community regulations. The cheese-making process was responsible for the transfer of the metals into the cheese but the level of contamination differed, also depending on the dairy, the production technology and the extent of exogenous contamination. On the whole, the contribution that Mozzarella makes to the daily intake of lead and cadmium appears to be toxicologically negligible.

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ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY AND PHENOLIC CONTENT OF WATER EXTRACTS OF BORAGO OFFICINALIS L.: INFLUENCE OF PLANT PART AND COOKING PROCEDURE
C. García-Herreros, M. García-Iñiguez, I. Astiasarán and D. Ansorena
Water extracts of borage (Borago officinalis L.) were prepared from raw stems and leaves and from cooked (boiled and steamed) stems. Antioxidant activity (AA) was determined by ABTS and DPPH after their respective calibration with Trolox as standard and the results of both assays are expressed as µg Trolox/g fresh plant. Total phenolic compounds (TPC) were also determined for each extract. The DPPH and ABTS values in leaf extracts were similar and approximately 3.5 times higher than the values obtained for stem extracts. The high antioxidant activity of leaf extracts might be attributed to the high amount of phenolic compounds (2.36 mg GAE/g fresh plant for leaves and 0.57 mg GAE/g fresh plant for stems). Boiling significantly decreased the antioxidant activity (51-52% decrease) and total phenolic compounds (67% decrease). Steaming had no significant effect on the antioxidant activity values, whereas the total phenolic compound values showed approximately half of the decrease found for boiling (35%). Borage water extracts, particularly those of their by-products (leaves), showed high antioxidant activity, that could potentially be used for different applications in the food industry.

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AGRONOMIC AND QUALITY PARAMETERS OF FLAT PEACH UFO3, UFO4 AND SWEETCAP®
FCA. Hernández, J.J. Martínez and P. Legua
The agronomic and fruit quality characteristics of the peach cultivars ‘Ufo3’, ‘Ufo4’ and ‘Sweetcap®’ cultivars grown in Murcia, Spain are reported. The cultivar ‘Sweetcap®’ is a mid-season flat peach while ‘Ufo3’ and ‘Ufo4’ are early flat peaches. ‘Sweetcap®’ displayed good plantation uniformity, had an average yield of 5.1 kg/m2, a high calibre fruit and weight (162.5 g), high soluble solids content (12.7ºBrix), high pulp yield (97.0%) and high quality taste. The cultivars ‘Ufo3’ and ‘Ufo4’ also displayed good plantation uniformity, with a higher average yield than ‘Sweetcap®’ (5.2 and 5.3 kg/m2, respectively), an average fruit weight that was slightly less, 90.6 g for ‘Ufo3’ and 103.3 g for ‘Ufo4’, flatter fruit, and a soluble solids content ranging from 11.4º to 12.2ºBrix. The ‘Ufo4’ cultivar had lower acidity and very high-quality tasting fruit (high SSC/TA ratio).

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SHORT COMMUNICATIONS

DIFFERENT SENSITIVITY TO BROWNING IN FRESH-CUT PINEAPPLE, APPLE AND PEAR: THE ROLE OF ENDOGENOUS VITAMIN C
S. Tavarini, L. Trinci, E. Degl’Innocenti and L. Guidi
Pineapple, apple and pear were studied as fresh-cut fruit compared to the whole ones upon storage at 4°C. Pineapple did not show any symptom related to enzymatic browning even after 216 h of storage, in comparison symptoms were evident in apple and pear as soon as 24 h after cutting. The different sensitivity of the three types of fruit was linked to the high content in ascorbic acid in pineapple as compared to apple and pear.

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EFFECT OF A TOMATO EXTRACT-SUPPLEMENTED DIET ON EGG YOLK PIGMENTATION AND LYCOPENE TRANSFER EFFICIENCY
L. Rotolo, G. Strazzullo, M. Pagella, A. Brugiapaglia, L. Pozzo and A. Schiavone
The aim of this research was to measure the ability of laying hens fed a tomato extract-supplemented diet to deposit dietary lycopene into the egg yolk, and to investigate the effects of lycopene on yolk pigmentation. Twenty Isa Brown hens were individually caged and fed two dietary treatments: 1) control diet (C) and 2) control diet + 0.08% (w/w) tomato extract dissolved in soybean oil (2% w/w) (TE). The tomato extract-supplemented diet provided a calculated lycopene level of 13 mg/g. Feed and water were provided ad libitum. Colorimetrical and HPLC analysis confirmed that the dietary lycopene was incorporated into the egg yolk at values ranging from 0.12 to 0.16 µg/g yolk (as is). Dietary tomato extract affected L*, a* and b* values of yolk and approximately 0.13% lycopene was transferred from the feed to the yolk. The data suggest that the TE diet resulted in a significant lycopene carry over and the intensity of egg yolk colour was influenced by dietary lycopene supplementation.

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QUALITY OF TOMATO FERTILIZED WITH NITROGEN AND PHOSPHOROUS
L.F. Di Cesare, C. Migliori, D. Viscardi and M. Parisi
The influence of different levels of nitrogen (N1, N2), phosphorous (P1, P2) and N+P (N1P1, N1P2, N2P1, N2P2) mixed fertilizers was investigated on volatile substances, soluble sugars, organic acids, titratable acidity, dry matter and lycopene of “Corbarino” cherry-like tomatoes. The flavour volatiles reached the highest concentrations in red-ripe cherry-like tomatoes treated with N1. Glucose, fructose, dry matter and titratable acidity increased only in N+P fertilized samples. Among the organic acids, citric increased, malic decreased and oxalic was constant in all the fertilized samples. Lycopene reached the highest values in N2 and N2P2 samples.

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NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF FILLETS, PULP AND CROQUETTES OF WILD CAUGHT LAKE TRASIMENO GOLDFISH (CARASSIUS AURATUS L.)
A. Dal Bosco, E. Mourvaki, C. Mugnai, S. Ruggeri and C. Castellini
Processing is required to render the products of some fish species edible, thus enhancing their economic value. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the nutritional value of goldfish (Carassius auratus L.) products from Lake Trasimeno (Umbria, Italy). The same number of fillets (n=20), raw and pre-cooked pulp samples, as well as of croquettes were used to evaluate the proximate composition, total lipid fatty acid profile and the protein and lipid oxidative stability. The water holding capacity (WHC) and the percentage of cooking loss (CL) were also assessed. Despite the low amount of lipids (1.85%), fresh goldfish fillets were characterized by a high PUFA level (54.30%), with DHA being the most abundant long-chain fatty acid (15.60%) followed by EPA (9.45%). Fillet processing reduced both WHC and CL of the final products, while the production of TBARS and carbonylated proteins increased, especially in croquettes (+ 59 and + 77%, respectively). Thrombogenic and atherogenic indexes also increased due to the PUFA reduction, reaching statistical significance only for the croquettes (0.53 vs 0.21 and 0.46 vs 0.34, respectively). These results suggest that goldfish fillets are characterized by a high nutritional value and a good oxidative stability. However, more efforts are needed to preserve these characteristics throughout processing.

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CHANGES IN CYTOCHROME C OXIDASE (CCO) AND LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE (LDH) ENZYME ACTIVITY OF THE WHITE EPAXIAL MUSCLE TISSUE OF SEA BASS (DICENTRARCHUS LABRAX L.) AS SHELF-LIFE PREDICTIVE INDICES DURING ICE-STORAGE
C. Nathanailides, O. Lopez-Albors, D. Lenas, F. Athanassopoulou and K. Grigorakis
Fish freshness can be evaluated by sensory, physical and biochemical parameters. The purpose of the present work was to evaluate the potential utilisation of enzyme activity changes as indicators of shelf life in ice-stored sea bass. Changes in the enzyme content and organoleptic score of ungutted ice-stored sea bass were monitored over a two-week period. Organoleptic score and activity of CCO and LDH decreased gradually with a 50% reduction after 10 days of storage in ice. The results show that monitoring the activity of the mitochondrial and cytoplasmic enzymes of fish muscle can be used as an indicator of fish freshness.

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INFLUENCE OF SEASON ON MICROBIOLOGICAL LOADS IN READY-TO-EAT VEGETABLES
V. Coroneo, A. Sanna, F. Danjou, P. Caboni and S. Dessì
The safety of ready-to-eat vegetables was evaluated in relationship to microbiological risk to human health associated with their consumption through the study of hygiene-health requirements. Vegetable quality was tested using standard methods to enumerate E. coli and Enterobacteriaceae, that are indicators of contamination in food processing. The presence of other microorganisms such as Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes was also ascertained. During the warm seasons (spring and summer), the ready-to-eat products had high aerobic plate counts at 30°C (8.9x106 cfu/g); Enterobacteriaceae were also recorded (2.4x104 cfu/g). Therefore, these products should be transported and stored according to the strict requirements of the cold chain cycle. An information campaign targeting both the demand and supply sides should be carried out. Consumers should be made aware of the necessity to preserve the food cold-chain in order to minimize the risk of microbial contamination (e.g., by using thermal bags to transport food). Likewise, ready-to-eat products should be properly labelled.

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IN VITRO SYNERGISTIC ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF HELICHRYSUM ARENARIUM, INULA HELENIUM, CICHORIUM INTYBUS AND SOME PRESERVATIVES
D. Stanojević, L.J. Čomić, O. Stefanović and S. Solujić Sukdolak
The aim of this study was to investigate the antibacterial activity of aqueous extracts of the species Helichrysum arenarium L., Inula helenium L. and Cichorium intybus L. and their synergistic action with the preservatives sodium nitrite, sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate in vitro against selected food-spoiling bacteria, for potential use in the food industry. Synergism was noticed for all aqueous extracts and in relation to: Agrobacterium radiobacter var. tumefaciens, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus mycoides, Erwinia carotovora, Enterobacter cloaceae and Pseudomonas fluorescens. Synergism was established at plant extract and preservative concentrations corresponding to 1/4 and 1/8 MIC values, which indicates the possibility of avoiding the use of higher concentrations of the preservatives tested.

MICROBIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF THE DRY-SLAUGHTER PROCESS FOR SMALL SCALE POULTRY MEAT PRODUCTION
L. Valnegri, M. Franzoni, L. Vercellotti and G. Soncini
The dry-slaughter process for poultry includes mechanical defeathering followed by a waxing phase, without scalding. The aim of the present work was to study the impact of dry-slaughter procedures on the microbiological quality of poultry carcasses. A total of 161 laying hens were examined. Sponge swab samples were collected from different carcass sites at three successive processing stages (i.e. from the neck after stunning and from the breast after defeathering and after waxing). Each carcass sample was analyzed for counts of total aerobic mesophilic bacteria, coliforms, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and the incidence of Salmonella spp. In addition, fecal swab samples collected from each bird were analyzed for the presence of Salmonella spp. The microbiological analysis results showed low levels of carcass contamination for each microorganism, at all stages of the dry-slaughter process. However, an increase in the levels of Staphylococcus aureus was recorded in the post-waxing phase. Salmonella spp. was not found in any of the samples tested.

BACTERICIDAL ACTIVITY OF ELECTROLYZED OXIDIZING WATER ON FOOD PROCESSING SURFACES
A. Serraino, G. Veronese, S. Alonso, R. Matera, B. Lugoboni and F. Giacometti
The efficacy of electrolyzed oxidizing water (EOW) as a disinfectant of food processing surfaces was evaluated. Bacterial inactivation was first tested by direct contact of EOW with bacterial suspensions. Then three different surfaces (teflon, stainless steel and ceramic) were artificially contaminated and bacterial survival was determined after treatment with water and EOW. Efficacy was tested for mesophilic bacteria and for Salmonella Typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, verotoxigenic Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Staphylococcus aureus. Contact test (30 s) of EOW with bacterial suspensions resulted in an 8 log reduction in bacterial populations. Spraying treatment of artificially contaminated surfaces revealed different degrees of disinfectant activity of EOW on different bacterial species. No differences in efficacy were detected between different surfaces. Changes in the physico-chemical properties (pH, oxidation-reduction activity (ORP), free CHLC of EOW were measured during contact with different surfaces. After low-pressure spraying both ORP activity and free-chlorine content rapidly decreased with time. Low-pressure spraying does not seem to affect EOW disinfectant activity. EOW has a very strong disinfectant activity which, along with its easy and safe use, makes it a good alternative to many other more widely used disinfectants.

PRESENCE OF BIOGENIC AMINES IN RICOTTA FORTE, A TRADITIONAL ITALIAN DAIRY PRODUCT FROM THE PUGLIA REGION
S. Rea, N. Mascaro, M. Ricciutelli, N. Cammertoni, S. Cecchini, A.R. Loschi and R. Stocchi
Ricotta Forte is a niche dairy product belonging to the traditional Italian agroindustrial products of the Puglia region. It is produced from sheep, cow or goat whey proteins as “classic” ricotta, but is characterized by a prolonged shelf life. The intense fermentation process that is the result of a unique manufacturing technology that requires a considerable amount of handling and prolonged ripening makes the product a favourable substratum for biogenic amine (BA) production. The aim of the present study was to determine the presence of the most important BAs, such as cadaverine, putrescine, histamine, tyramine, b-phenylethylamine, spermine and spermidine, in samples of different kinds of Ricotta Forte produced and purchased within the traditional area. High levels of BAs were detected in all the samples, especially in those to which no preservative (sorbic acid) was added.  Since Ricotta Forte is used mostly in small quantities (one-two teaspoons) as a flavouring ingredient in pasta, meatballs, appetizers, etc. to enrich and enhance their taste, the amount of BAs eaten is not alarming. However its consumption is not recommended for persons belonging to categories at risk for such compounds.

DEVELOPMENT OF A FLOTATION METHOD FOR DETECTING INSECT FRAGMENTS IN BRAN AND FINE BRAN
G.S. Germinara, A. De Cristofaro and G. Rotundo
A simple and rapid flotation method for separating insect fragments in bran and fine bran was developed. A 25 g sample is properly hydrated by immersion and stirring (10 min) in hot (90°C) distilled water (600 mL) and then sieved (mesh sieve n. 140) under jets of cold tap water. The trapping is quantitatively transferred to a Wildman trap flask, dissolved in ethanol (60%) and floated with light mineral oil. The material floated is paper-filtered with a Buchner funnel under vacuum. Material obtained from three consecutive flotations and filtrations are microscopically examined and the insect fragments are counted. The new method which requires low input of facilities and non-toxic reagents could be useful to detect insect fragments in bran and fine bran used for the production of whole food or animal feed.

SURVEYS

ANALYSIS OF FACTORS AFFECTING TURKISH SUNFLOWER OIL CONSUMER BEHAVIOR: THE CASE OF ERZURUM PROVINCE
Y. Topcu, B. Turhan and A.S. Uzundumlu
Sunflower oil consumption in Turkey has been increasing for the past decade due to dietary and health concerns. However, consumption of sunflower oil exceeds its production. Efforts have been made to overcome the production deficit for the last decade by importing the oil, but this deficit has continued to increase. The aim of this study was to explore Turkish consumer behaviour with respect to sunflower oil consumption in the city of Erzurum. Factor and regression analyses were used to determine significant factors related to sunflower oil attributes and the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of the consumers. To this end, factor and multiple linear regression analyses using the SPSS statistical program were carried out on the data from a 250-household survey. The results show that consumer satisfaction with sunflower oil and its price play an important role in consumer buying decisions and the amount bought is related to sunflower oil attributes. With regard to consumer buying power and frequency, vegetable oil expenditures are directly affected by the stage of the life-cycle and job position. These factors also play an important role in consumer buying attitudes and behaviour. These findings are also beneficial to marketers, manufacturers and retailers for product design and developing new marketing tactics and strategies.

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